Montaigne saw his age as one of dissimulation, corruption, violence, and hypocrisy, and it is therefore not surprising that the point of departure of the Essays is situated in negativity: the negativity of Montaigne's recognition of the rule of appearances and of the loss of connection with the truth of being. Montaigne's much-discussed skepticism results from that initial negativity, as he questions the possibility of all knowing and sees the human being as a creature of weakness and failure, of inconstancy and uncertainty, of incapacity and fragmentation, or, as he wrote in the first of the essays, as "a marvelously vain, diverse, and undulating thing." His skepticism is reflected in the French title of his work, Essais, or "Attempts," which implies not a transmission of proven knowledge or of confident opinion but a project of trial and error, of tentative exploration. Neither a reference to an establish ed genre (for Montaigne's book inaugurated the ter essay for the short prose composition treating a given subject in a rather informal and personal manner) nor an indication of a necessary internal unity and structure within the work, the title indicates an intellectual attitude of questioning and of continuous assessment.

Montaigne's skepticism does not, however, preclude a belief in the

existence of truth but rather constitutes a defense against

the danger of locating truth in false, unexamined, and externally imposed notions. His skepticism, combined with his desire

for truth, drives him to the rejection of commonly accepted ideas and a profound distrust of generalizations and abstractions; it also shows him the way to an exploration of the only realm that promises certainty: that of concrete phenomena and primari ly the basic phenomenon of his own body-and-mind self. This self, with all its imperfections, constitutes the only possible site where the search for truth can start, and it is the reason Montaigne, from the beginning to the end of the Essays, does not c ease to affirm that "I am myself the matter of my book." He finds that his identity, his "master form" as he calls it, cannot be defined in simple terms of a constant and stable self, since it is instead a changeable and fragmented thing, and that the val orization and acceptance of these traits is the only guarantee of authenticity

and integrity, the only way of remaining faithful to the truth of one's

being and one's nature rather than to alien semblances.

Yet, despite his insistence that the self guard its freedom toward

outside influences and the tyranny of imposed customs and

opinions, Montaigne believes in the value of reaching outside the self.

Indeed, throughout his writings, as he did in his private and public life, he manifests the need to entertain ties with the world of other people and of events. For this necessary coming and going between the interiority of the self and the exteriority of the world, Montaigne uses the image of the back room: human beings have their front room, facing the street, where they meet and interact with others, but they

need always to be able to retreat into the back room of the most private self, where they may reaffirm the freedom and strength of intimate identity and reflect upon the vagaries of experience. Given that always-available retreat, Montaigne encourages contact with others, from which one may learn much that is useful. In order to do so, he advocates travel, reading, especially of history books, and conversations with friends. These friends, for Montaigne, are necessarily men. While none can ever replace La Botie, it is possible to have interesting and worthwhile exchanges with men of discernment and wit. As for his relations with women, Montaigne wrote about them with a frankness unusual for his time. The only uncomplicated bond is that of marriage, whi ch reposes, for Montaigne, on reasons of family and posterity and in which one

invests little of oneself. Love, on the other hand, with its emotional

and erotic demands, comports the risk of enslavement

and loss of freedom. Montaigne, often designated as a misogynist, does in fact recognize that men and women are fundamentally alike in their fears, desires, and attempts to find and affirm their own identity and that only custom and adherence to an ant iquated status quo establish the apparent differences between the sexes, but he does not explore the possibility of overcoming that fundamental separation and of establishing an intellectual equality.

Montaigne extends his curiosity about others to the inhabitants of the

New World, with whom he had become acquainted

through his lively interest in oral and written travel accounts and

through his meeting in 1562 with three Brazilian Indians

whom the explorer Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon had brought back to

France. Giving an example of cultural relativism and tolerance, rare in his time, he finds these people, in their fidelity to their own nature and in their cultural and personal dignity and sense of beauty, greatly superior to the inhabitants of wester n Europe, who in the conquests of the New World and in their own internal wars have shown themselves to be the true barbarians. The suffering and humiliation

imposed on the New World's natives by their conquerors provoke his

indignation and compassion.

Involvement in public service is also a part of interaction with the

world, and it should be seen as a duty to be honourably and loyally discharged but never allowed to become a consuming and

autonomy-destroying occupation.

Montaigne applies and illustrates his ideas concerning the independence

and freedom of the self and the importance of social

and intellectual intercourse in all his writings and in particular in his

essay on the education of children. There, as

elsewhere, he advocates the value of concrete experience over abstract learning and of independent judgment over an

accumulation of undigested notions uncritically accepted from others. He also stresses, throughout his work, the role of the

body, as in his candid descriptions of his own bodily functions and in

his extensive musings on the realities of illness, of

aging, and of death. The presence of death pervades the Essays, as

Montaigne wants to familiarize himself with the inevitability of dying and so to rid himself of the tyranny of fear, and he is able to accept death as part of nature's exigencies, inherent in life's expectations and limitations.

Montaigne seems to have been a loyal if not fervent Roman Catholic all

his life, but he distrusted all human pretenses to

knowledge of a spiritual experience which is not attached to a concretely lived reality. He declined to speculate on a

transcendence that falls beyond human ken, believing in God but refusing to invoke him in necessarily presumptuous and reductive ways.

Although Montaigne certainly knew the classical philosophers, his ideas

spring less out of their teaching than out of the completely original meditation on himself, which he extends to a description of the human being and to an ethics of authenticity, self-acceptance, and tolerance. The Essays are the record of his thought s, presented not in artificially organized stages but as they occurred and reoccurred to him in different shapes throughout his thinking and writing activity. They are

not the record of an intellectual evolution but of a continuous

accretion, and he insists on the immediacy and the authenticity

of their testimony. To denote their consubstantiality with his natural

self, he describes them as his children, and, in an image of startling and completely nonpejorative earthiness, as the excrements of his mind. As he refuses to impose a false unity on the spontaneous workings of his thought, so he refuses to impose a f alse structure on his Essays. "As my mind roams, so does my style," he wrote, and the multiple digressions, the wandering developments, the savory, concrete

vocabulary, all denote that fidelity to the freshness and the immediacy

of the living thought. Throughout the text he sprinkles anecdotes taken from ancient as well as contemporary authors and from popular lore, which reinforce his critical analysis of reality; he also peppers his writing with quotes, yet another way of in teracting with others, that is, with the authors of the past who surround him in his library. Neither anecdotes nor quotes impinge upon the autonomy of his own

ideas, although they may spark or reinforce a train of thought, and they

become an integral part of the book's fabric.

Montaigne's Essays thus incorporate a profound skepticism concerning the human being's dangerously inflated claims to knowledge and certainty but also assert that there is no greater achievement than the ability to accept one's being without either con tempt or illusion, in the full realization of its limitationsand its richness.