1. Molecules
2. Chemistry
3. Organization
4. Challenges
5. Generation
6. Classification

Organic Compounds

1. Molecules made by living organisms
2. Made up primarily of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S)

Carbohydrates

1. Organic molecules containing C, H, and O
2. Ex. sugars, starches, and cellulose
3. Important as fuel for energy transfer, food storage, and rigid structure

Proteins

1. Organic molecules containing C, H, O, N, P, and S
2. Made up of amino acids
3. Ex. enzymes and hormones
4. Important as catalysts, transport molecules, and flexible structure

Lipids

1. Organic molecules containing C, H, O, N, and P
2. Ex. fatty acids, glycerol, waxes
3. Important as fuel for energy transfer, food storage, and fluid structure

Nucleic Acids

1. Organic molecules containing C, H, O, N, and P
2. Ex. nucleotides, ATP, DNA and RNA
3. Important as catalysts and energy transfer molecules, for protein synthesis, and as hereditary material

Building Organic Molecules

1. Anabolic reactions such as chemosynthesis and photosynthesis
2. Builds organic molecules from simple, inorganic molecules
3. Photosynthesis:
   • Carbon Dioxide + Water + Sunlight --> Organic Matter + Oxygen
   • Photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll are used to gather sunlight energy

Burning Organic Molecules

1. Catabolic reactions such as fermentation and respiration
2. Breakdown organic molecules and transfer energy into a form that can be used by cells
3. Aerobic respiration:
   • Organic Matter + Oxygen --> Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP (Usable Chemical Energy)

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Definition: Small, primitive cells that lack complex organelles such as membrane bound nuclei
2. The DNA is found in small, circular loops
3. Ex. bacteria

Eukaryotic Cells

1. Definition: Large complex cells that contain membrane bound organelles including a membrane bound nucleus
2. The various membranous organelles are specialed to perform particular functions
3. The DNA is found densely packed in chromosomes
4. Ex. protists, fungi, plants and animals

Levels of Organization

1. Definition: Atoms are the fundamental units of matter
2. Definition: Molecules are combinations of atoms that are bonded together
3. Definition: Organelles are complex structures inside cells made up of biomolecules
4. Definition: Cells are the fundamental units of living organisms and made up of organelles
5. Definition: Tissues are groups of specialized cells that function and are bound together
6. Definition: Organs are structures made up of groups of tissues that function together
7. Definition: Organ Systems are groups of organs that function together
8. Definition: Individuals are single organisms
9. Definition: Populations are groups of organisms of the same species
10. Definition: Communities are groups of populations in a particular habitat
11. Definition: Ecosystems are communities together with their physical environment

Effects of Salinity on Marine Life

1. Reaction rates slow if salt concentration or ionic composition is not ideal.
2. Salinity effects feeding, growth, locomotion and reproduction.

Osmoconformer

1. Definition: Osmoconformers are organisms that are unable to maintain constant internal salt and water concentrations.

Sea Cucumbers are Osmoconformers

1. A sea cucumber swells in dilute seawater because water rushes in to dilute its salty body.
2. The sea cucumber can survive this dilution in water of salinities down to 12 ^ppt before they are killed.

Osmoregulator

1. Definition: Osmoregulators are organisms that can maintain a constant internal salt concentration.

Salmon are Osmoregulators

1. Salmon maintain a body fluid salinity of 13 ^ppt or 1.3 percent salt.

Salmon in the Sea

1. Salmon in the sea will tend to loose water and gain salt because seawater is 3.5 percent salt and 96.5 percent water.
2. To maintain constant internal conditions when they are in the sea they:
   • Block out salt by restricting the area of boundary layer permeable to salt to the gills and throat.
   • Drink seawater and pump salt out through their gills (The gills are a site of active transport of ions out of the body).
   • Produce urine that has the same concentration of salts as seawater.

Salmon in Freshwater

1. Salmon in a river will tend to gain water and loose salt because freshwater is less than 0.5 percent salt and greater than 99.5 percent water.
2. To maintain constant internal conditions when they are in a river they:
   • Do not drink water.
   • Pump salt into their blood through their gills.
   • Produce watery urine.

Effects of Temperature on Marine Life

1. Rates of biochemical reactions double or triple for every 10 ^{degree centigrade} rise in temperature (ex. photosynthesis and cellular respiration).
2. Temperature affects rates of feeding, growth, locomotion and reproduction.

Thermoconformers

1. Definition: Ectotherms are organisms that depend upon external heat sources to warm them.

Barnacles are Ectothermic

1. Barnacles feed by sweeping their modified legs (cirri) through the water to strain out food particles.
2. Their feeding rate (cirral beating) can be used to measure the effect of temperature on thier activity.
3. The number of cirral beats per minute (feeding rate) is temperature dependent: greater at warm temperatures than at cold ones.

Thermoregulators

1. Definition: Endotherms are organisms that have internal heat sources to warm them.
2. Definition: Homeotherms are organisms that maintain a constant internal temperature.

Whales are Endothermic and Homeothermic

1. Whales produce heat with their powerful swimming muscles, which are located deep in their bodies.
2. Whales maintain a constant internal temperature of 40 ^{degrees centigrade} (104 ^{degrees fahrenheit}).

Whales Control Heat Loss

1. Whales have a thick layer of blubber under their skin which acts as insulation slowing heat loss.
2. Whales have a small surface-to-volume ratio due to their large size, small limbs and streamlined bodies. This small surface area radiates heat slowly.
3. Whales have a countercurrent heat exchange system: arterial heat passes to veins before it reaches skin. Dilation of arteries leading to the skin cools a whale. Constriction of arteries leading to the skin warms a whale.

Asexual Reproduction

1. Definition: Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals without genetic recombination
2. One parent only
3. Cloning
4. Ex. Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants and Animals

Importance of Asexual Reproduction

1. Rapid and prolific
2. Genetically identical
3. Good in an environment where parents flourish
4. Good in a uniform unchanging environment

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Definition: Fission is an asexual process of bacteria, algae and other unicellular protists by which a single cell divides into 2 cells.
2. Definition: Vegetative propagation is an asexual process of seaweeds and plants by which specialized organs such as rhizomes, runners, and stolons produce new individuals.
3. Definition: Budding is an asexual process of some invertebrate animals by which a new individual develops from parent tissue. The new individual may or may not separate from parent.
4. Definition: Fragmentation and regeneration is an asexual process of seaweeds, plants, and some invertebrate animals by which an individual breaks apart into pieces which regrow the missing parts.

Colonies

1. Grows by asexual budding without separation
2. Founded by sexual reproduction
3. Individuals of a colony may be specialized for a task

Sexual Reproduction

1. Definition: Sexual reproduction is production of new individuals with the admixture of genes from two parents
2. Ex. Seaweeds, Fungi, Plants and Animals

Importance of Sexual Reproduction

1. Genetic variety produced by recombination of the genes of two parents
2. Good in an unstable or changing environment
3. Assures that some of the young can survive even if the parents cannot

Sexual Life Cycle

1. --> Adults --> Gametes (sperm/ova) -->
2. --> Gametes --> Zygotes (fertilized eggs) -->
3. --> Zygotes --> Embryos and Larvae (developing young) -->
4. --> Embryos and Larvae --> Juveniles (immature forms) -->
5. --> Juveniles --> Adults (mature forms) -->

Fertilization

1. Definition: Fertilization is the fusion of sperm and egg to form a zygote
2. Gametes (sperm/ova) --> Zygotes (fertilized eggs)

Internal Fertilization

1. Inside female
2. Proceeded by copulation

External Fertilization

1. In seawater
2. Proceeded by spawning of eggs and sperm

Development

1. Definition: Development is the rapid growth and changes in form following fertilization and leading to the production of the juvenile
2. Zygotes (fertilized eggs) --> Embryos and Larvae (developing young) --> Juveniles (immature forms)

Embryos

1. Definition: An embryo is the developmental stage between the zygote and the juvenile

Internal Development

1. Inside female
2. Definition: Live bearing is the birth of juveniles

External Development

1. In seawater
2. Release of eggs or larvae
3. An embryo develops from the zygote and hatchs from the egg as a larva or a juvenile
4. Definition: A larva is the developmental stage after hatching living free and fending for itself while it develops into a juvenile. Development of a juvenile from a larva often involves metamorphosis (dramatic change in form).
5. Definition: Direct development is a pattern of development in which an embryo develops directly into a juvenile which hatches from an egg without becoming a larva.
   

Broadcasting

1. Larvae are released and drift as plankton
2. No parental care
3. Eggs and larvae generally small and numerous
4. Advantage: Dispersal
5. Disadvantage: Eaten by predators, settle in wrong place

Brooding

1. Embryos and larvae are held in a pouch, attached to the body, or held in a burrow or tube
2. Embryos and larvae are sheltered by parent(s)
3. Eggs and larvae generally large and few
4. Advantage: protection
5. Disadvantage: no dispersal stage

Taxonomy

1. Classification into groups called taxa
2. The biological evidence demonstrates unity amid diversity.
3. To make sense out of a myriad of forms the biologist must group forms together in a massive nested filing system.
4. Taxonomists try to classify organisms so that taxa contain close relatives descended from a common ancestor.

Phylogeny

1. Definition: Phylogeny is the pathway of evolution, evolutionary history, geneologies of taxa
2. We deduce the pathways of evolution, the arrangement of the branches of the tree of life, from biological evidence:
   • Anatomy and Physiology
   • Reproduction and Development
   • Behavior and Ecology
   • Biochemistry and Genetics
   • Fossils and Paleontology

Binomial Nomenclature

1. Two name naming system
   • The first name is the genus name and is capitalized
   • The second name is the species name and is lower case
   • Ex. Callinectes sapidus (Callinectes is the genus name and sapidus is the species name)
2. The genus is a group of species that have descended from a common ancestor
3. The species is a natural grouping

Species

1. Morpho-species is anatomically defined
   • advantages: observable and measurable
   • disadvantages: disregards importance of genetics and therefore evolution
2. Biological Species is genetically defined by shared gene pools and reproductively isolated
   • advantages: evolutionary
   • disadvantages: not easily observed or measured

Higher Taxa

1. A taxon above the species level is a collective unit composed of one or more groups from the next lower level in a hierarchical scheme
2. Hierarchical Classification
   • Kingdom
   • Phylum
   • Class
   • Order
   • Family
   • Genus
   • species

Five Kingdoms

1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia