1. Scientific Method
2. Observation
3. Ways of Thinking
4. Hypotheses and Testing
5. Theory
6. Limitations

Scientific Method

1. The scientific method is a process that tests possible answers to questions about nature that have been formulated from careful observations
2. Answers supported by the results of these tests are then added to the scientific record

Attributes of the Method

1. The scientific method is used by scientists to insure that the answers to their questions are based on objective evidence and verifiable
2. Ideas must be testable and therefore cannot deal with things that are supernatural because they are not testable

Common Elements

1. Observing nature
2. Asking a question
3. Proposing a hypothesis
4. Designing a test
5. Making Predictions
6. Conducting the test
7. Analyzing the results
8. Drawing conclusions

Observing Nature

1. Gathering information using the raw senses or using equipment
2. Keeping careful records of observations

Asking a Question

1. What causes something to happen?
2. How will something affect something else?

Induction

1. Starting with a number of separate observations one can arrive at general principles
2. Jumping to conclusions

Deduction

1. Starting with a general principle one can derive specific conclusions
2. Making predictions

Proposing a Hypothesis

1. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation which answers the original question and can be supported or refuted when tested
2. Hypothesis generation uses inductive reasoning to jump to conclusions (reasoning from particular facts to a general conclusion)

Designing a Test

1. Most scientists design experiments to test their hypothesis

Making Predictions

1. Often in the form of an if/then statement: If the hypothesis is true, then such-and-such will occur
2. Uses deductive reasoning (reasoning from the general to the specific)

Conducting the Test

1. Performing the experiment and collecting data, or little facts, that will support or refute the hypothesis

Analyzing the Results

1. Assembling and describing data

Drawing Conclusions

1. The data does/does not bear out the predictions
2. The data does/does not support the hypothesis
3. The data acts as additional observations for asking new questions and proposing new hypotheses

Multiple Working Hypotheses

1. A set of alternative explanations: H1, H2, H3, etc.
2. Each one can explain the observations and is supported by tests but none can be chosen over any other
3. Further testing may refute some or all of them

Strong Inference

1. After rigorous testing that involves trying to refute all the working hypotheses one hypothesis may remain
2. One can strongly infer that the remaining hypothesis is correct

Strong Science

1. Whenever you design an experiment to test a hypothesis, try to think of the experiment that would disprove it.
2. If you cannot you may be able to make a strong inference.

Null Hypothesis

1. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference or nothing happening, H0

Strong Hypothesis

1. The null hypothesis is a strong alternative hypothesis because when you reject a null hypothesis the alternatives all indicate a difference or something happening.
2. Since there is no positive proof, scientific advances are made by the rejection of null hypotheses.

Theory

1. A hypothesis that has been supported by many different repeatable tests and seems to have no major inconsistencies
2. It is the surviving hypothesis of a group of multiple working hypotheses
3. A theory can also be used to predict behavior

Basic Properties of Nature

1. Scientists assume that the natural world has some basic underlying properties
2. Theories attempt to describe these properties
3. Since theories can never be proved beyond all doubt these basic properties can never be known with total certainty

Unifying Theory

1. Explains many seemingly unconnected phenomena because it describes a basic underlying property of nature
2. Can be used to predict many outcomes
3. It unifies a field of study Examples: Plate Tectonics, Evolution, Relativity

Scientific Laws

1. Unifying theories that are accepted by just about all scientists
2. Ex. Law of Gravity

Scientific Bias

1. Scientists may let personal biases affect their thinking

Ideas Must be Testable

1. Science cannot deal with things that are supernatural because they are not testable

Science Cannot Pass Judgement

1. Values, ethics and morality are outside the relm of science